While both the male and female body change over time, a woman’s body is subject to more variations. Menarche, monthly cycles, weight gain, pregnancy, breast feeding, deterioration of physical appearance, and menopause are all major events in woman’s life cycle as compared to men who face spermarche, muscle gain, weight gain and muscle loss, deterioration of physical appearance and hair loss, and andropause. Women are also more impacted by body change because of the idolization of youth and thinness here in the West. Women grow up under the “tyranny of slenderness” (Chernin, 1981). Men just need to be of average weight with good muscle tone to get by. Neither body image journey is carefree, but women seem to weather more storms. And both sexes are condemned to chronic unhappiness with their body images—the normative discontent that plagues the human condition—but again, women bear the brunt of the burden (Tantleff-Dunn, Barnes, & Larose, 2011).
Phases of Change
Preschoolers are not so much concerned with their body size and weight as they are about their hair and clothes. Girls are particularly interested in their appearance and this is most likely reinforced by their families. By age five, both sexes express the desire to be bigger and weight concerns appear shortly after this age. This mutually shared desire to be bigger is driven by two different factors: girls identify with being thin while boys want to be larger in size and muscular. These gender differences are not exclusive to the United States, but found in many other countries as well (Smolak, 2011).
Girls in the six to 12-year-old range prefer body shapes that are smaller than themselves and experience increasing dissatisfaction with their bodies. Body shame appears at this age especially among girls with higher levels of body dissatisfaction (Smolak, 2012). Mothers are highly influential regarding their daughters’ body images. The relationship between the quality of mother–daughter relationships and the daughters’ body images were explored in 152 girls ages eight to 12. Young girls who had strong, positive relations had significantly healthier body images (Smith et al., 2016).
Menarche is the central event in female pubertal development and typically occurs at the zenith of the growth spurt in height and a trigger weight (Kaczmarek, 2012). Menstruation has differential effects on female body image. The negative effects of premenstrual syndrome include physiological, cognitive, emotional, and behavioral changes. These changes are caused by fluctuating hormonal levels. Estrogen levels rise in the follicular phase of the cycle. This causes the female brain to become more animated and capable of processing much more information than usual. Women in this phase experience greater sensory sensitivity, a feeling of well-being, energy, enthusiasm, self-esteem, and are more prone to sexual arousal. Progesterone has a different effect. It reduces brain blood flow along with lowered oxygen and glucose metabolism which lowers the sex drive, deflates mood, and increases depression and anxiety. Women’s well-known mood swings come from the opposing effects of estrogen and progesterone. A woman’s mood may jump from distress and depression to irritability and hostility four to five days before menstruation (Kikuchi, et al., 2010; McPherson & Korfine, 2004). The body dissatisfaction of premenstrual girls is 2.4 times greater than other females who are in the menstrual phase (Kacmarek & Trambacz-Oleszak, 2016).
The timing of pubertal events is more crucial than their actual occurrence. Early and late bloomers experience more interpersonal and psychological problems than their peers according to the off-time hypothesis. Early maturing females have a more positive body image at first, but this devolves after weight gain, breast development, and hip widening. Girls who experience menarche earlier than their peers are more prone to body dissatisfaction. One study showed that a girl’s body image is positively correlated with her rate of breast development—the faster the development the greater the level of positive body image—while negatively correlated with the level of follicular-stimulating hormone meaning the earlier the onset of menarche the less negative the body image (Slap et al., 1994). Being late in development or having a body anomaly (e.g., acne) leads to public teasing and bullying which, in turn, fuels body anxiety, lowers self-esteem, contributes to negative body image, and general unhappiness.).
Females are more likely than males during this period to have a precipitous drop in self-esteem due to weight gain (Steese, et al., 2006). Much of this dissatisfaction is from being singled out for negative attention and unwanted scrutiny. The developmental challenge of this stage is to manage the pubertal changes of menstruation, fat increase, and appearance breasts and body hair. The appearance of pubic hair may be particularly disconcerting for girls as it is associated with dirtiness, maleness or animality, Breast enlargement contributes to a girl’s self-image about becoming a woman, but these changes also bring anxiety and feelings of being out of control (Morris, 2004).
The pregnancy experience is profoundly complex. Women immediately face a transition from a pre-pregnant body to a pregnant one with subsequent changes in their identities. This often includes reassessing the cultural beauty norms regarding body largeness in relation to themselves. Pregnant women must build a new body image based on their past body image, their cultural values regarding feminine beauty, and the reality of carrying a baby. They typically make the transition into a new bodily identity out of biological necessity. The priorities of being a mother override all past standards of beauty and thinness to help create a positive body image (Skouteris, 2012).
Women are more accepting of their weight gains if the fat is distributed to the abdomen, hips, and buttocks rather than to the face or arms. Some women want to “look pregnant” with a noticeably protruding belly rather than just “looking fat.” Women often justify the increased weight gain as the price they pay for the baby’s good health. Along with increases in weight so too does breast size which becomes a point of great awareness. This is not to say that weight gain is not a source of body dissatisfaction. Women are often ambivalent about the increase. Some find their body changes fascinating especially when looking at themselves unclothed. Attitudes toward weight gain vary with some women being unconcerned while others attempt to control for it during pregnancy. Women express great interest and enthusiasm for needing a new wardrobe. Others find their increased size disgusting or even horrifying. Some women express confusion as to how large their abdomens should be and if having a smaller abdomen than the norm is unhealthy (Allison & Sarwer, 2016). Many women wonder about how much weight they will gain and if they will be able to return to their pre-pregnancy weights after birth. The anticipated transition back to a non-pregnant body state causes anxiety. Women’s dissatisfaction with their size and weight is highest at this moment.
How the body image adapts to pregnancy and afterward depends on how flexible a woman is in transitioning from a “non-pregnant self” to a “pregnant self” and back again (Allison & Sarwer, 2016; Richardson, 1990). Women who have a positive body image prior to becoming pregnant recover more quickly than those with body anxiety issues (Grogan, 2012).
The postpartum period causes many women the most problems. The most common one is postpartum depression or “baby blues.” One aspect of this mood disturbance is body image adjustment. Women report that they had never appreciated how firm and relatively slender their bodies were before pregnancy, and now, after giving birth, are unhappy about the weight gain, stretch marks, wider hips, reduced muscle tone, and flabbier breasts. Women have the highest body image concerns immediately after giving birth and these last until at least six-months postpartum. Women engage in a higher frequency of physical comparisons between themselves and other women and this peaks at about six-weeks postpartum (Rallis et al., 2007).
Women experience a variety of physical changes with the onset of menopause including weight gain, irregular menstrual bleeding, hot flashes, and sexual concerns. Dillaway (2006) found in a survey of middle-aged women that most experienced menopause as a major life change. More than half felt that the change was negative and problematic, about half reported unwanted weight gain, a small number reported breast shape change, and one-half reported changes in skin quality. The midlife change for women occurs when estrogen begins slowly dropping over a ten-year period. The menstrual cycle shortens from the 28-day period down to about 23 days by the 40s. The climacteric ends with menopause usually in the late 50s. Estrogen levels drop even more after menopause causing the reproductive organs to shrink and lose both sensitivity and lubrication. Sexual problems increase with about 35 to 40 percent of women reporting difficulties. Estrogen loss also affects skin tone and bone density. The possibility of cardiovascular problems increases because estrogen serves to protect against plaque build-up on arterial walls. Menopause brings mood fluctuations, hot flashes, and night sweats. There is no strong relation between menopause, irregular sleep patterns or depression (Berk, 2014). There are many myths about menopause and many problems have been attributed to it in the past such as depression, irritability, nervousness, memory loss, and even insanity, but research proves otherwise. Many of these problems occur because of the life stage of the individual woman rather than the physiological change. Middle age is stressful because of changes in life roles, changes in relationships, and daily responsibilities. How a woman views these challenges along with the quality of her coping skills can affect her perception of menopause (Papalia et al., 2004).
Women and Body Weight
A recent research study delved more deeply into the transformation of women’s body image over time. It conducted retrospective surveys of 102 women over 65 at 15 senior communities and centers in the American Midwest in 2012 who were asked about their past and current body image perceptions. Researchers sought to understand how women perceive their bodies over their lifetimes and see if there were any common developmental themes shared amongst them (Lee & Damhorst, 2020).
Most women throughout their lives experience major fluctuations in body size, weight, and shape (Grogan, 2016; Montemurro & Gillen, 2013). The average body weight and body mass index scores among women in young and middle adulthood increased between 1960 and 2002 according to national surveys. Middle-aged women experience body image distortions by experiencing their actual body shapes as being much larger than do younger women (Ogden et al., 2004). The truth is, however, that most women misperceive their actual body weight and yearn for an unrealistic ideal body shape through most of their life beginning in childhood. As they age, they continue to perceive their current body size as larger than their ideal (Lewis & Cachelin, 2001; Oberg & Tornstam, 2001). Things change yet again as women slowly lose weight in old age (Miller & Wolfe, 2008; Newman et al., 2001; Soysal et al., 2018).
The Double Standard of Body Appearance
Current social theories assert that there is a double-standard for women because they more so than men are socially penalized for their loss of attractiveness and sex appeal as they age. Middle-aged women are usually rated as being less attractive and more likely to have a negative personality. Depictions of older women in the mass media are often cruel as they portray older women as asexual, lonely, and depressed. Worse, even the thought of an older woman wanting sex is denied or ridiculed. This is sad because women at middle-age tend to feel more confident, more positive about themselves, and more assertive. Ageism—the social prejudice against the elderly–ignores these positive qualities in favor of judgments about the loss of physical attractiveness (Denmark & Klara, 2007; Kite et al., 2005). Women experience ageism earlier than men as they lose their beauty. And, although many men may appear “distinguished” for a brief span as they get older, it is only a matter of time before they experience ageism as well.
The Realization of Body Wisdom
Many older women live in anxiety about their diminishing physical abilities, but at the same time, take great satisfaction and pleasure in exercising and displaying their physical competence (Bennett et al., 2017). The overall trajectory of a woman’s body image is an increasing distance between the ideal and the actual (Lee & Damhorst, 2020). Women shift their somatic values by accepting that their body ideals are now beyond their grasp and additional weight is inescapable. When women realize that their bodies have lost that youthful glow, they let go of their fantasy goal of achieving a more attractive form in favor of the optimum level of physical functioning of which their bodies are capable (Reboussin et al., 2000). In general, women are better able to adjust to body image changes. They do so by maintaining a consistent view of the self despite age-related changes in appearance, ability, and health status. Women seem better able to absorb these changes into their self-image (Kaminski & Hayslip, 2006).
Closing Thoughts
The overall arc of somatic change with age can be uncomfortable, confusing, and distressing, but it does not necessarily lead to depression and despair. There are positive forces at hand to help us manage these changes and they begin with giving up the adherence with the ideal body, accepting what Time takes from each us, and seeing ourselves with self-love, compassion, and body appreciation. Body appreciation grows from a mixture of psychological maturity, spiritual growth and just plain pragmatic acceptance of what is. Research shows that appreciation is positively associated with aging and vanquishes body dissatisfaction. Women over the age of 50 have the greatest body appreciation of all age groups (Tiggemann & McCourt, 2013). The body image of women shows astonishing resiliency. Body appreciation, compassion, and self-love are just a few of the protective factors that guard body image integrity and, like women in general, should not be underestimated (Hensley-Choate, 2005).
Embodiment is paradoxical. Even though we must in time mourn the loss of what we were, we can still rejoice in the transformation into something new. Our somatic reality deems this so.
Paul Shane, Ph.D., LMT
Director, Academic Content
References
Allison, K. & Sarwer, D. (2016). Body image disturbance during pregnancy and the postpartum period. In A. Wenzel (Ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Perinatal Psychology. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, pp. 231-251.
Bennett, E., Hurd Clarke, L., Kowalski, K., & Crocker, P. (2017). From pleasure and pride to the fear of decline: Exploring the emotions in older women’s physical activity narratives. Psychology of Sport and Exercise 33, p. 113–122.
Chernin, K. (1981). The Obsession: Reflections on the Tyranny of Slenderness. New York, NY: Harper.
Lee, M. & Damhorst, M. (2020). Women’s body image throughout the adult life span: A latent growth modeling approach. The International Journal of Aging and Human Development 9(3), p. 317-339.
Denmark, F. & Klara, M. (2007). Empowerment: A prime time for women over 50. In V. Mulhbauer & J. Chrisler (Eds.), Women Over 50, New York, NY: Springer, pp. 182-203.
Dillaway, H. (2005). (Un)Changing menopausal bodies: How women think and act in the fact of reproductive transition and gendered beauty ideals. Sex Roles: A Journal of Research 53(1-2), p. 1-17.
Grogan, S. (2012). Body image development—Young women. In T. Cash (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Body Image and Human Appearance, Vol. 1: A-F, p. 201-206.
————– (2016). Body image: Understanding Body Dissatisfaction in Men, Women, and Children, Third Edition. New York, NY: Routledge.
Hensley Choate, L. (2005). Toward a theoretical model of women’s body image resilience. Journal of Counseling & Development 83, p. 320-330.
Kaczmarek, M. (2012). Growth spurt in height and menarcheal onset of urban girls. In M. Hermanussen, L. Lieberman, V. Janewa, C. Scheffler, & A. Ghosh, Diversity in Auxology: Between Theory and Practice, Anthropologische Anzeiger 69(2), p. 160.
Kaczmarek, M. & Trambacz-Oleszak, S. (2016). The association between menstrual cycle characteristics and perceived body image: A cross-sectional survey of Polish female adolescents. Journal of Biosocial Science 48, p. 374-390.
Kaminski, P. & Hayslip, B. (2006). Gender differences in body esteem among older adults. Journal of Women & Aging 18(3), p. 19-35
Kikuchi, H., Nikatani, Y., Seki, Y., Yu, X., Sekiyama, T., Sato-Suzuki, I., & Arita, H. (2010). Decreased blood serotonin in the premenstrual phase enhances negative mood in healthy women. Journal of Psychosomatic Obstetrics and Gynecology 31(2), p. 83-89.
Kite, M., Stockdale, G., Whitley, B., & Johnson, B. (2005). Attitudes toward younger and older adults: An updated meta-analytic review. Journal of Social Issues 61, p. 241-266.
Lee, M. & Damhorst, M. (2020). Women’s body image throughout the adult life span: A latent growth modeling approach. The International Journal of Aging and Human Development 9(3), p. 317-339.
Lewis, D. & Cachelin, F. (2001). Body image, body dissatisfaction, and eating attitudes in midlife and elderly women. Eating Disorders 9, 29–39.
McPherson, M. & Korfine, L. (2004). Menstruation across time: Menarche, menstrual attitudes, experiences, and behaviors. Women’s Health Issues 14, p. 193-200.
Miller, S. & Wolfe, R. (2008). The danger of weight loss in the elderly. The Journal of Nutrition, Health & Aging 12(7), 487–491.
Montemurro, B., & Gillen, M. (2013). Wrinkles and sagging flesh: Exploring transformations in women’s sexual body image. Journal of Women and Aging 25(1), p. 3–23.
Newman, A., Yanez, D., Harris, T., Duxbury, A., Enright, P., & Fried, L. (2001). Weight change in old age and its association with mortality. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society 49, 1309–1318.
Oberg P., & Tornstam, L., (2001). Youthfulness and fitness—Identity ideals for all ages? Journal of Aging and Identity 6, 15–29.
Ogden, C., Fryar, C., Carroll, M., & Flegal, K. (2004). Mean body weight, height, and body mass index, United States 1960-2002. Advance Data from Vital health Statistics; No. 347. Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics.
Reboussin, B., Rejeski, W., Martin, K., Callahan, K., Dunn, A., King, A., & Sallis, J. (2000). Correlates of satisfaction with body function and body appearance in middle- and older aged adults: The activity counseling trial (ACT). Psychology & Health 15, 239–254.
Richardson, P. (1990). Women’s experience of body change during normal pregnancy. Maternal-Child Nursing Journal 19, p. 93-111.
Skouteris, H. (2012). Pregnancy: Physical and body image changes. In T. Cash (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Body Image and Human Appearance, Vol. 2: G-Z. London, UK: Elsevier/Academic Press, p. 664-668.
Slap, G., Khalid, N., Paikoff, R., Brooks-Gunn, J., & Warren, M. (1994). Evolving self-image, pubertal manifestations, and pubertal hormone: Preliminary findings in young adolescent girls. Journal of Adolescent Health 15, p. 327-335.
Smith, J., Erickson, S., Austin, J., Winn, J., Lash, D., & Amrhein, P. (2016). Mother-daughter relationship quality and body image in preadolescent girls. Journal of Child and Family Studies 25, p. 2683-2694.
Smolak, L. (2011). Body image development in childhood. In T. Cash & L. Smolak (Eds.), Body Image: A Handbook of Science, Practice, and Prevention, Second Edition. New York, NY: The Guilford Press, pp. 67-75.
—– (2012). Body image development—Girl children. In T. Cash (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Body Image and Human Appearance, Vol. 1: A-F. London, UK: Academic Press, pp. 212-217.
Soysal, P., Veronese, N., Thompson, T., Kahl, K., Fernandes, B. S., Prina, A., Solmi, M., Schofield, P., Koyanagi, A., Tseng, P., Lin, P., Chu, C., Cosco, T., Cesari, M., Carvalho, A. & Stubbs, B. (2018). Relationship between depression and frailty in older adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Ageing Research Review 36, p. 78–87.
Steese, S., Dollette, M., Phillips, W., Hossfield, E., Matthews, G., & Taormina, G. (2005). Understanding girls’ circle as an intervention on perceived social support, body image, self-efficacy, locus of control, and self-esteem. Adolescence 41(161), p. 55-74.
Tantleff-Dunn, S., Barnes, R., & Larose, J. (2011). It’s not just a “woman thing:” The current state of normative discontent. Eating Disorders 19(5), p. 392-402.
Tiggemann, M. & McCourt, A. (2013). Body appreciation in adult women: Relationships with age and body satisfaction. Body Image 10, p. 624-627.
Revised 05-02-24.